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The GCD Working Paper Series presents initial findings and work in progress from the Governance of Clean Development project team and its associate fellows.
We welcome submissions to the Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series by invitation. For more information on suggested themes and guidelines click here, or download our Call for Working Papers and Submission guidelines. A selection of working papers from the series will be considered for inclusion in an edited book on The Governance of Clean Development.
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Governing Clean Development in Least Developed Countries: do CDM rules promote renewable energy in Ethiopia?
Hoch, S. (2012) Governing Clean Development in Least Developed Countries: do CDM rules promote renewable energy in Ethiopia? [PDF 870 KB]. Working Paper 018, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia UK.
ABSTRACT: Climate policy is becoming more important for the sustainable development of non-Annex I countries, for instance by supporting access to renewable energy. In order to better adapt the CDM and future climate policy instruments to the circumstances of low-income societies, it is important to understand how the CDM’s institutional dimensions impact governance processes in host countries. Hence, this paper presents a case study on how CDM rules for renewable energy generation impact climate and energy governance in Ethiopia. First, the paper develops a theoretical approach to analyze climate governance processes which is grounded in sociological institutionalism. Second, the paper applies these concepts to the CDM as a governance institution that is nested within the overarching regime, in order to develop a more nuanced understanding of CDM rules. CDM rules for renewable energy will be discussed with regard to their relevance for LDCs in a process-oriented perspective that accounts for ongoing CDM reforms. Third, these preparations guide the inductive analysis of the impact of these CDM rules on climate and energy governance in Ethiopia. This case study draws on a comprehensive analysis of academic and grey literature, content analysis of key documents, and a series of semi-structured expert interviews conducted in Ethiopia, Kenya and during several sessions of climate negotiations between 2009 and 2011.Governing Clean Energy in India
Phillips, J., Newell, P. & Purohit, P. (2011) Governing Clean Energy in India [PDF 903 KB]. Working Paper 017, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia UK.
ABSTRACT: This paper looks at the ways in which clean energy is being governed in India. It analyses and seeks to explain the nature of governance arrangements and policy-making processes around the development of energy sources and technologies defined as ‘clean’ both by the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and beyond. Such an analysis requires an assessment of governance processes across a number of scales from global to local involving actors such as the World Bank, different parts of the Indian national government and federal states, and an array of market makers and non-state actors that play a role in mobilizing finance and political and institutional support for clean energy. The paper finds that the political barriers to uptake of clean energy in India run deeper than both carbon markets and the scope of technocratic or managerial reform programs. By considering the political nature of clean energy governance in India, opportunities arise to ensure that the CDM is aligned with potentially more significant domestic initiatives and political relationships. Governance and politics are integral to ensuring this coherence and to managing the potential trade-offs between energy security, alleviation of energy poverty and addressing climate change in industrializing countries such as India.
Understanding the dominance of unilateral CDM projects in China: origins and implications for governing carbon markets
Shen, W. (2011) Understanding the dominance of unilateral CDM projects in China: origins and implications for governing carbon markets [PDF 459 KB]. Working Paper 016, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia UK.
ABSTRACT: This paper analyzes the development of unilateral Clean Development Mechanism projects (uCDMs) as the dominant project pattern in China’s CDM market. It intends to reveal the political and economic reasons of such dominance and argues that the uCDMs pattern is particularly favoured by powerful actor groups, mainly business actors, involved in the CDM project circle. The corporate or business strategy, interests and day-to-day practices hence become an important governance element to develop and maintain the dominance of unilaterally financed CDM in the market. The flourishing of uCDMs is an important deviation of the initial assumption of CDM, which is generally believed to be a mechanism of joint implementation of projects between developing and developed nations and companies. These observations in China, the world leading CDM market today, also have notable implications on how carbon markets are governed ‘from below’.
Governing electricity in South Africa: wind, coal and power struggles
Baker, L. (2011) Governing electricity in South Africa: wind, coal and power struggles [PDF 728 KB]. Working Paper 015, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia UK.
ABSTRACT: South Africa’s electricity policy is at a crossroads. Its historical dependence on cheap coal for approximately 90 per cent of its electricity generation is under threat from a variety of factors. This paper firstly examines how the governance of South Africa’s electricity is inextricably bound up with the country’s historical dependence on cheap coal for export-oriented industry and complex political and economic legacy which has shaped its minerals-energy complex (Fine and Rustomjee 1996). Secondly it finds that despite regulatory hold-ups and departmental tensions, power dynamics in the electricity sector are shifting with the potential introduction of private renewable energy generation into the energy mix. Of this, wind is set to form the largest component. Meanwhile Eskom’s Medupi coal-fired power plant deemed as essential to the country’s generation expansion has been redefined as a ‘clean coal’ power plant following a World Bank loan of $3 billion in April 2010. The paper concludes that while vested interests in the country’s coal-based industrial trajectory are still very influential, they are simultaneously challenged with rising coal costs, imminent national electricity supply shortages and increasing tariffs, a funding crisis of the electricity utility, the demands of climate change mitigation and emerging stakeholders in renewable generation.
Technology Transfer under the Clean Development Mechanism: an empirical study of 1000 CDM projects
Das, K. (2011) Technology Transfer under the Clean Development Mechanism: an empirical study of 1000 CDM projects [PDF 1.25 MB]. Working Paper 014, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia UK.
ABSTRACT: Against the backdrop of the enhanced importance of technology transfer in the context of the ongoing climate change negotiations, the potential of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) as a vehicle for technology transfer has been underscored. This study undertakes an empirical exploration of the extent to which the CDM is contributing to technology transfer and what is the nature of that technology transfer. The study presents an operational definition of technology transfer in the context of the CDM and applies this definition to a dataset of the first 1000 registered CDM projects. The core finding that emerges from the study is that the contribution of the CDM to technology transfer can at best be regarded as minimal.
Integrating energy and climate governance in South Africa: drivers, barriers and the shadow of hierarchy
Never, B. (2011) Integrating energy and climate governance in South Africa: drivers, barriers and the shadow of hierarchy [PDF 719 KB]. Working Paper 013, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia UK.
ABSTRACT: This paper analyses the integration of climate and energy governance in South Africa. It identifies the current drivers and barriers in both sectors, focusing on clean development beyond the Clean Development Mechanism. The conceptual lens of the shadow of hierarchy is applied to analyse the role of both government and business. The paper finds that more coherence and collaboration between actors and their activities presents the key to the transition to a low-carbon economy in South Africa. The shadow of hierarchy only seems to trigger effective governance if the enforcement, content and time-frame for (potential) governmental action is sufficiently clear to all governance actors.
What Makes People Adopt Improved Cookstoves? Empirical Evidence from rural northwest Pakistan
Inayat, J. (2011) What makes people adopt improved cookstoves? Empirical evidence from rural northwest Pakistan [PDF 342 KB]. Working Paper 012, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia UK.
WEB ABSTRACT: Development of the improved biomass stove programs in the 1970s has been one of the efforts to reduce the burden on biomass resource base through reliable and efficient methods of energy consumption. However, despite having multiple economic, social, environmental, and health benefits, the improved stove dissemination programs failed to capture worldwide recognition.Drawing on field work surveys in rural northwest Pakistan, this paper provides empirical evidence of individual, household, and community level variables that play a vital role in the adoption of improved cookstoves. Using regression analysis, the study finds that education and household income are the most significant factors that determine a household willingness to adopt improved biomass stoves. The study concludes that the rate of adoption could substantially be improved if the government and non-governmental organizations play a greater role in overcoming the social, economic, cultural, political, and institutional barriers to adopting improved cooking technologies.
The Sustainability of Biofuels: Limits of the Meta-Standard Approach
Lin, J. (2010) The Sustainability of Biofuels: Limits of the Meta-Standard Approach [PDF 88 KB]. Working Paper 011, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia UK.
ABSTRACT: The promotion of biofuels as a clean fuel alternative has been a significant aspect of the global quest for clean development. However, the quick-fix has proven to be problematic as food security and environmental concerns emerge. To address these concerns, European Union Renewable Energy Directive (EC Directive 2009/28/EC) contains sustainability criteria that biofuels must fulfill to be counted towards attainment of European Union or national renewable energy obligations or to be eligible for financial support. The European Commission has adopted the ‘meta-standard’ approach as the compliance mechanism. The ‘meta-standard’ approach relies heavily on voluntary certification schemes and is an example of regulatory ‘out-sourcing’ to private actors in European clean development governance. This paper critically examines the limitations of the ‘meta-standard’ approach, draws comparisons with governance of the Clean Development Mechanism, and argues that a much more robust regulatory framework is needed if we are to pay more than lip service to the notion of sustainable development.
The Public, the Private and the Hybrid: Mapping the Governance of Energy Finance
Newell, P. (2010) The Public, the Private and the Hybrid: Mapping the Governance of Energy Finance [PDF 191 KB]. Working Paper 010, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia UK.
This working paper has been revised for publication in a special issue of Global Policy on Global Energy Governance (Volume 2, special supplement)
ABSTRACT: Finance is central to the achievement of policy goals associated with promoting energy security, tackling energy poverty and addressing climate change. Mobilising, levering, steering and regulating flows of public and private finance in the energy sector presents a huge governance challenge. This mapping paper provides a typology of the governance of energy finance. It aims to capture the different governance dimensions associated with (i) the public governance of public finance (ii) the public governance of private finance and (iii) the private governance of private finance. It is suggested that the different dimensions of governance apparent in each type in terms of rules, decision-making procedures and the distinct patterns of accountability, participation and representation manifested, reflect different mandates, political constituencies and alliances and material capabilities. It is also attempts to show how the processual aspects of governance in this area in terms of who determines which issues of energy finance are addressed or actively neglected strongly affects the distributional elements of governance. This has an impact in terms of who benefits, who doesn’t and why and how effective action is overall at meeting its distinct objectives.
Ecological Modernisation and the Governance of Carbon: a Critical Analysis
Bailey, I., Gouldson, A., & Newell, P (2010) Ecological Modernisation and the Governance of Carbon: a Critical Analysis [PDF 206 KB]. The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series 009 / Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy Working Paper Series No. 26. School of International Development, University of East Anglia UK and CCCEP, Leeds, UK.
This working paper has been revised for publication in a special issue of Antipode on The ‘New’ Carbon Economy (Volume 43 Number 3). The working paper is co-produced by the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy Working Paper Series
ABSTRACT: In this paper, we use insights derived from a critical evaluation of ecological modernisation (EM) theories to examine the origins and influence of new, market based, forms of carbon governance. Focusing on two key examples of these, namely emissions trading in Europe and the global market in offsets, we argue that EM theories can help us both to understand the processes through which the seemingly intractable problem of climate change has, over a relatively short period of time, been reframed as an opportunity to construct a new carbon economy and to anticipate some of the tensions, contradictions and limits of such an approach. We then explore the governance dimensions of these novel market mechanisms. We explore, in turn, the political drivers of these new forms of carbon governance: how they came to be ‘naturalized’ as preferred policy options. We then look at how they work: how decisions are made and which actors are enrolled in the process of governing to lend it authority, legitimacy and effectiveness. We then discuss whether, to what extent and for whom they work. We highlight a series of (un)-intended consequences that flow from these practices and modes of governing. These include accountability and legitimacy deficits, participation gaps and uneven spatial and social development. We conclude by discussing the significance of these observations both for debates on climate change and the governance of carbon and for theories of EM.The matter of carbon: understanding the materiality of tCO2e in carbon offsets
Bumpus, A. (2010) The matter of carbon: understanding the materiality of tCO2e in carbon offsets [PDF 485 KB]. Working Paper 008, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia UK.
This working paper has been revised for publication in a special issue of Antipode on The ‘New’ Carbon Economy (Volume 43 Number 3)
ABSTRACT: This paper examines the socio-natural relations inherent in the commodification of carbon reductions as they are generated in energy-based carbon offset project activities, and abstracted to wider market systems. The ability to commodify carbon reductions takes place through a socionatural-technical complex that is defined by the material nature of technology’s interaction with the atmosphere, local social processes and the evolving governing systems of carbon markets. Carbon is not unproblematically commodified: some projects and technologies allow a more cooperative commodification than others. The examples of a hydroelectricity plant and an improved cookstove project in Honduras are used as empirical case studies to illustrate the difficulties and opportunities associated with the relational aspects of carbon commodification. Drawing upon select literatures from post-structural thought to complement the principal lens of a more structural, materialities of nature analysis, the paper also outlines the reasons why carbon offset reform is needed if offsets are to more progressively engage debates about climate mitigation and North-South development.
Stakeholder networks in carbon governance: the role of state-market relations in the Indian renewable energy sector
Benecke, G. (2010) Stakeholder networks in carbon governance: the role of state-market relations in the Indian renewable energy sector [PDF 431 KB]. Working Paper 007, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia UK.
ABSTRACT: Climate change confronts countries like India with immense challenges. The demand for new modes of governance in India, as elsewhere, arises out of developing countries’ dilemma that government as well as the market fails to adequately address climate change and human welfare. In the context of the international climate change regime, new modes of governance such as the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) are institutionalised as alternative market-based policy devices. However, implementation of the CDM varies spatially. This paper focuses on the role of actor networks in specific local settings as a determinant of effective renewable energy governance. The case of the Indian wind sector demonstrates that, ultimately, state-market relations and interactions in evolving stakeholder networks are a prerequisite to effectively responding to challenges of climate change and development.
Previous papers in the GCD Working Paper Series:
The governance of clean energy development: a case study of Botswana and its stakeholders
Colman, T. (2010) The governance of clean energy development: a case study of Botswana and its stakeholders [PDF 194 KB]. Working Paper 006, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia UK.
NGOs and the Clean Development Mechanism: constraints and opportunities in the discourse of EU consultations
Girling, A. (2010) NGOs and the Clean Development Mechanism: constraints and opportunities in the discourse of EU consultations [PDF 200 KB]. Working Paper 005, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia UK
Wine, Fruit and Emission Reductions: CDM as Development Strategy in Chile
Rindefjäll, T., Lund, E. & Stripple, J. (2010) Wine, fruit and emission reductions: CDM as development strategy in Chile [PDF 110 KB]. Working Paper 004, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia UK
Rindefjäll et al.'s working paper has since been published in revised form in International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics 11(1): 7-22
Climate change and the Clean Development Mechanism in Indonesia: An appraisal
Dathe, N. (2009) Climate change and the Clean Development Mechanism in Indonesia: An appraisal [PDF 384 KB]. Working Paper 003, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia, UK.
Can the CDM bring technology transfer to developing countries? An empirical study of technology transfer in China's CDM projects.
Wang, B. (2009) Can the CDM bring technology transfer to developing countries? An empirical study of technology transfer in China's CDM projects [PDF 496 KB]. Working Paper 002, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia, UK.
The GCD project approach to analysing Clean Development Governance is outlined in the first working paper of the series, published in revised form in Development Policy Review 27(6): 717-739
Governing clean development: a framework for analysis.
Newell, P., Jenner, N. & Baker, L. (2009) Governing clean development: A framework for analysis [PDF 336 KB]. Working Paper 001, The Governance of Clean Development Working Paper Series. School of International Development, University of East Anglia, UK.
ABSTRACT: This paper constructs a framework for understanding and explaining the governance of clean development in order to generate insights about who is governing clean development, by what means, for whom and how effectively. Understanding key governance dimensions is critical to appreciating the extent to which and the ways in which flows of public and private investment into the developing world can be harnessed to the goals of clean development, principally in the area of energy. The governance structures and decision-making processes of CD ‘providers’ and ‘recipients’ may provide important clues as to why the governance of CD ‘from above’, produces such diverse and uneven outcomes once mediated and translated by forms of ‘governance’ from below, principally at the national level in the first instance. Such a framework usefully highlights governance gaps and blind-spots, issues of policy coherence and coordination and the distributional consequences of existing patterns of CD governance. This provides the basis for assessing the social and environmental effectiveness of existing initiatives in this area as well as identifying areas for future reform.
